Best Practice & Research Clinical Obstetrics & Gynaecology
Volume 23, Issue 6 , Pages 795-807 , December 2009

The prevention and treatment of intrauterine growth restriction

  • Rosalie Grivell, BSc, BMBS, MRANZCOG (Maternal Foetal Medicine Fellow)

      Affiliations

    • Corresponding Author InformationCorresponding author. Tel.: +61 8 81617619.
  • ,
  • Jodie Dodd, MBBS, PhD, FRANZCOG, DDU, CMFM (Senior Lecturer, Obstetrics and Gynaecology)
  • ,
  • Jeffrey Robinson, BSc, MB BCh BAO, FRCOG, FRANZCOG (Professor of Obstetrics and Gynaecology)

References 

  1. Simpson AR. Introduction. In:  Budin P editors. The nursling London. The Caxton Publishing Co; 1907;
  2. WHO . Obesity: preventing and managing the global epidemic. Geneva: World Health Organisation; 2000;
  3. Wigglesworth JS. Pathological and experimental aspects of foetal growth retardation. Proc R Soc Med. 1967 Sep;60(9):879–881
  4. Economides DL, Nicolaides KH. Cordocentesis in the investigation of fetal oxygenation and metabolism. In:  Chervenak FA,  Isaacson GC,  Campbell S editor. Ultrasound in obstetrics and gynecology. Boston: Little, Brown and Company; 1993;
  5. Baschat AA. Fetal growth disorders. In: High risk pregnancy management options. Philadelphia: Saunders; 2006;
  6. Conti J, Abraham S, Taylor A. Eating behavior and pregnancy outcome. J Psychosom Res. 1998;44:465–477
  7. Baschat AA, Harman CR. Antenatal assessment of the growth restricted fetus. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol. 2001;13:161–168
  8. Gardosi J, Mul T, Mongelli M, et al. Analysis of birthweight and gestational age in antepartum stillbirths. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1998;105:524–530
  9. Yanney M, Marlow N. Paediatric consequences of fetal growth restriction. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med. 2004;9:411–418
  10. Barker DJ, Eriksson JG, Forsen T, et al. Fetal origins of adult disease: strength of effects and biological basis. Int J Epidemiol. 2002;31:1235–1239
  11. Hadlock FP, Deter RL, Harrist RB, et al. Estimating fetal age: computer-assisted analysis of multiple fetal growth parameters. Radiology. 1984;152:497–501
  12. Hutcheon JA, Platt RW. The missing data problem in birth weight percentiles and thresholds for “small-for-gestational-age”. Am J Epidemiol. 2008;167:786–792
  13. Health Council of the Netherlands. Preconception care: a good beginning. The Hague: 2007.
  14. Centres for Disease Control and Prevention. Recommendations to improve preconception health and health care — United States: a report of the CDC/ATSDR Preconception Care Work Group and the Select Panel on Preconception Care. 2006.
  15. Qin X, Wu Y, Wang W, et al. Low organic solvent exposure and combined maternal-infant gene polymorphisms affect gestational age. Occup Environ Med. 2008;65:482–487
  16. Wang X, Zuckerman B, Pearson C, et al. Maternal cigarette smoking, metabolic gene polymorphism, and infant birth weight. JAMA. 2002;287:195–202
  17. Hodnett ED, Fredericks S. Support during pregnancy for women at increased risk of low birthweight babies. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2003;3:CD000198
  18. Gortzak-Uzan L, Hallak M, Press F, et al. Teenage pregnancy: risk factors for adverse perinatal outcome. J Matern Fetal Med. 2001;10:393–397
  19. Joseph KS, Allen AC, Dodds L, et al. The perinatal effects of delayed childbearing. Obstet Gynecol. 2005;105:1410–1418
  20. Laws PJ, Abeywardana S, Walker J, et al. Australia's mothers and babies. Sydney: AIHW National Perinatal Statistics Unit 2007; 2005;
  21. Schieve LA, Cohen B, Nannini A, et al. A population-based study of maternal and perinatal outcomes associated with assisted reproductive technology in Massachusetts. Matern Child Health J. 2007;11:517–525
  22. Wang YA, Dean JH, Badgery-Parker T, et al. Assisted reproduction technology in Australia and New Zealand 2006. Sydney: AIHW National Perinatal Statistics Unit; 2008;
  23. Adamson L, Brown W, Byles J, et al. Women's weight: Findings from the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health. Report prepared for Australian Government Department of Health & Ageing, June 2007.
  24. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Health, wellbeing and bodyweight: characteristics of overweight and obesity in Australia, 2001. Bulletin No.13: AIHW; 2001.
  25. Callaway LK, Prins JB, Chang AM, et al. The prevalence and impact of overweight and obesity in an Australian obstetric population. Med J Aust. 2006;184:56–59
  26. Doherty DA, Magann EF, Francis J, et al. Pre-pregnancy body mass index and pregnancy outcomes. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2006;95:242–247
  27. National Research Council and Institute of Medicine. Influence of pregnancy weight on maternal and child health – workshop report. Washington, DC 2007.
  28. Cedergren M. Effects of gestational weight gain and body mass index on obstetric outcome in Sweden. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2006;93:269–274
  29. Cedergren MI. Optimal gestational weight gain for body mass index categories. Obstet Gynecol. 2007;110:759–764
  30. Kramer MS, Kakuma R. Energy and protein intake in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2003;4:CD000032
  31. Ceesay SM, Prentice AM, Cole TJ, et al. Effects on birth weight and perinatal mortality of maternal dietary supplements in rural Gambia: 5 year randomised controlled trial. BMJ. 1997;315:786–790
  32. Haider BA, Bhutta ZA. Multiple-micronutrient supplementation for women during pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006;(4):CD004905
  33. Williams MD, Wheby MS. Anemia in pregnancy. Med Clin North Am. 1992;76:631–647
  34. Reveiz L, Gyte GM, Cuervo LG. Treatments for iron-deficiency anaemia in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007;(2):CD003094
  35. Pena-Rosas JP, Viteri FE. Effects of routine oral iron supplementation with or without folic acid for women during pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006;(3):CD004736
  36. Christian P, Khatry SK, Katz J, et al. Effects of alternative maternal micronutrient supplements on low birth weight in rural Nepal: double blind randomised community trial. BMJ. 2003;326:571
  37. Mahomed K, Bhutta Z, Middleton P. Zinc supplementation for improving pregnancy and infant outcome. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007;(2):CD000230
  38. Makrides M, Crowther CA. Magnesium supplementation in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2001;(4):CD000937
  39. Thaver D, Saeed MA, Bhutta ZA. Pyridoxine (vitamin B6) supplementation in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006;(2):CD000179
  40. WHO. Reaching optimal iodine nutrition in pregnant and lactating women and young children: joint statement by the World Health Organization and the United Nations Children's Fund; 2007.
  41. Christian P, Darmstadt GL, Wu L, et al. The effect of maternal micronutrient supplementation on early neonatal morbidity in rural Nepal: a randomised, controlled, community trial. Arch Dis Child. 2008;93:660–664
  42. WHO. Promoting optimal fetal development: report of a technical consultation. Geneva, Switzerland: 2003.
  43. Wills RA, Coory MD. Effect of smoking among indigenous and non-indigenous mothers on preterm birth and full-term low birthweight. Med J Aust. 2008;189:490–494
  44. Andres RL, Day MC. Perinatal complications associated with maternal tobacco use. Semin Neonatol. 2000;5:231–241
  45. Lumley J, Oliver SS, Chamberlain C, et al. Interventions for promoting smoking cessation during pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2004;(4):CD001055
  46. Mills JL, Graubard BI, Harley EE, et al. Maternal alcohol consumption and birth weight. How much drinking during pregnancy is safe?. JAMA. 1984;252:1875–1879
  47. NHMRC. Australian alcohol guidelines: health risks and benefits. National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia 2001.
  48. Doggett C, Burrett S, Osborn DA. Home visits during pregnancy and after birth for women with an alcohol or drug problem. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2005;(4):CD004456
  49. Maternal caffeine intake during pregnancy and risk of fetal growth restriction: a large prospective observational study. BMJ. 2008;337:2332
  50. Clapp JF. Exercise during pregnancy. A clinical update. Clin Sports Med. 2000;19:273–286
  51. Kramer MS, McDonald SW. Aerobic exercise for women during pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006;(3):CD000180
  52. WHO. Antiretroviral drugs for treating pregnant women and preventing HIV infection in infants: towards universal access: recommendations for a public health approach: HIV/AIDS Programme 2006.
  53. WHO. Guidance on global scale-up of the prevention of mother to child transmission of HIV: towards universal access for women, infants and young children and eliminating HIV and AIDS among children/Inter-Agency Task Team on Prevention of HIV Infection in Pregnant Women, Mothers and their Children. 2007.
  54. Giaquinto C, Rampon O, De Rossi A. Antiretroviral therapy for prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission: focus on single-dose nevirapine. Clin Drug Investig. 2006;26:611–627
  55. Garner P, Gulmezoglu AM. Drugs for preventing malaria in pregnant women. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006;(4):18;CD000169
  56. WHO. Protecting vulnerable groups in malaria-endemic areas in Africa through accelerated deployment of insecticide-treated nets. WHO UNICEF Joint Statement 2005.
  57. Gamble C, Ekwaru JP, Ter Kuile FO. Insecticide-treated nets for preventing malaria in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006;(2):CD003755
  58. Alfirevic Z, Roberts D, Martlew V. How strong is the association between maternal thrombophilia and adverse pregnancy outcome? A systematic review. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2002;101:6–14
  59. Empson M, Lassere M, Craig J, et al. Prevention of recurrent miscarriage for women with antiphospholipid antibody or lupus anticoagulant. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2005;(2):CD002859
  60. Ottawa Health Research Institute . Thrombophilia in Pregnancy Prophylaxis Study (TIPPS). [cited; Available from: http://www.ohri.ca/programs/clinical_epidemiology/Thrombosis_Group/studies/TIPPS.asp
  61. ASSHP. The detection, investigation and management of hypertension in pregnancy: executive summary. 2000.
  62. Duley L, Henderson-Smart DJ, Meher S, et al. Antiplatelet agents for preventing pre-eclampsia and its complications. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007;(2):CD004659
  63. Askie LM, Duley L, Henderson-Smart DJ, et al. Antiplatelet agents for prevention of pre-eclampsia: a meta-analysis of individual patient data. Lancet. 2007;369:1791–1798
  64. Wang Y, Walsh SW. Antioxidant activities and mRNA expression of superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase in normal and preeclamptic pregnancies. J Soc Gynecol Investig. 1996;3:179–184
  65. Diplock AT. The Leon Golberg Memorial Lecture. Antioxidants and disease prevention. Food Chem Toxicol. 1996;34:1013–1020
  66. Rumbold A, Duley L, Crowther CA, et al. Antioxidants for preventing pre-eclampsia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008;(1):CD004227
  67. Hofmeyr GJ, Atallah AN, Duley L. Calcium supplementation during pregnancy for preventing hypertensive disorders and related problems. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006;(3):CD001059
  68. Abalos E, Duley L, Steyn DW, et al. Antihypertensive drug therapy for mild to moderate hypertension during pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007;(1):CD002252
  69. Magee LA, Duley L. Oral beta-blockers for mild to moderate hypertension during pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2003;(3):CD002863
  70. The Centre for Mother Infant and Child Research . Control of Hypertension In Pregnancy Study (CHIPS). [cited; Available from: http://www.utoronto.ca/cmicr/chips/index.html
  71. Churchill D, Duley L. Interventionist versus expectant care for severe pre-eclampsia before term. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2002;(3):CD003106
  72. Weiner CP. Pathogenesis, evaluation, and potential treatments for severe, early onset growth retardation. Semin Perinatol. 1989 Aug;13(4):320–327
  73. Lumley J, Watson L, Watson M, et al. Periconceptional supplementation with folate and/or multivitamins for preventing neural tube defects. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2001;(3):CD001056
  74. Australasian society of infectious diseases. Management of perinatal infections. 2006.
  75. Ornoy A. Fetal effects of primary and non-primary cytomegalovirus infection in pregnancy: are we close to prevention?. Isr Med Assoc J. 2007;9:398–401
  76. Houlton MC, Marivate M, Philpott RH. The prediction of fetal growth retardation in twin pregnancy. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1981;88:264–273
  77. Rao A, Sairam S, Shehata H. Obstetric complications of twin pregnancies. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 2004;18:557–576
  78. Cheung AP. Assisted reproductive technology: both sides now. J Reprod Med. 2006;51:283–292
  79. Gulmezoglu AM, Hofmeyr GJ. Bed rest in hospital for suspected impaired fetal growth. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2000;(2):CD000034
  80. Gulmezoglu AM, Hofmeyr GJ. Calcium channel blockers for potential impaired fetal growth. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2000;(2):CD000049
  81. Say L, Gulmezoglu AM, Hofmeyr GJ. Maternal nutrient supplementation for suspected impaired fetal growth. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2003;(1):CD000148
  82. Harding JE, Owens JA, Robinson JS. Should we try to supplement the growth retarded fetus? A cautionary tale. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1992;99:707–709
  83. Say L, Gulmezoglu AM, Hofmeyr GJ. Maternal oxygen administration for suspected impaired fetal growth. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2003;(1):CD000137
  84. A randomised trial of timed delivery for the compromised preterm fetus: short term outcomes and Bayesian interpretation. BJOG. 2003;110:27–32
  85. Boers KE, Bijlenga D, Mol BW, et al. Disproportionate intrauterine growth intervention trial at term: DIGITAT. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2007;7:12
  86. Roberts D, Dalziel S. Antenatal corticosteroids for accelerating fetal lung maturation for women at risk of preterm birth. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006;(3):CD004454
  87. Crowther CA, Doyle LW, Haslam RR, et al. Outcomes at 2 years of age after repeat doses of antenatal corticosteroids. N Engl J Med. 2007;357:1179–1189
  88. Doyle LW, Crowther CA, Middleton P, et al. Magnesium sulphate for women at risk of preterm birth for neuroprotection of the fetus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007;(3):CD004661
  89. Rouse DJ, Hirtz DG, Thom E, et al. A randomized, controlled trial of magnesium sulfate for the prevention of cerebral palsy. N Engl J Med. 2008;359:895–905

PII: S1521-6934(09)00084-4

doi: 10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2009.06.004

Best Practice & Research Clinical Obstetrics & Gynaecology
Volume 23, Issue 6 , Pages 795-807 , December 2009